Science & Engineering Career Profiles

Civil Engineer

Civil engineers design and supervise the construction of roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and water supply and sewage systems. Civil engineering, considered one of the oldest engineering disciplines, encompasses many specialties. The major specialties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construction, transportation, and geotechnical engineering.

Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching.

Employment

Civil engineers held about 228,000 jobs in 2002. More than 4 in 10 were employed by firms providing architectural, engineering, and related services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. Almost one-third of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. The construction industry accounted for most of the remaining employment. About 15,000 civil engineers were self-employed, many as consultants.

Civil engineers usually work near major industrial and commercial centers, often at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects.

Computer engineer

Computer engineers design and test computer hardware and software.
Computer engineers are part of a team of workers who develop computer equipment (hardware) and programs (software). Computer engineers are the team members who solve theoretical problems. They apply their knowledge of math and science to computer design. They help solve technical problems and pass that information on to team members who do the programming or create the equipment. However, engineers sometimes are involved in the hands-on part of the job.

Regardless of whether they develop software or hardware, engineers have some tasks in common. Before starting a project, they talk to clients to find out more about their needs. They also learn about the time line, security needs, and cost limitations. During projects, engineers test or supervise those who test their work. Once they complete projects, engineers may train clients how to use software or maintain hardware. They also monitor systems and repair those that are not functioning properly. Hardware and software engineers work together on some tasks. For example, they make sure that the hardware is able to handle the demands of the software.

Software engineers develop computer software systems, such as those that control manufacturing processes. They research, design, and test all parts of the software. For example, they look at the current operating system and determine how the new software will work with it. These engineers have strong programming skills. However, they spend more time analyzing and solving programming problems than doing programming. They supervise workers who do much of the programming and documenting. Engineers examine work as it is completed and suggest modifications. When the software is finished, engineers coordinate its installation on the client's system.

Many hardware engineers are involved in the development of hardware such as computer chips. However, some hardware engineers put together systems that will handle clients' needs. After gathering information from clients, engineers determine the best way to upgrade or replace the client's current hardware. They make sure the system is installed in a good environment. Thus, they may recommend that clients purchase equipment that controls the dust and temperature in the computer area. They may also require clients to rewire the computer area so that computers have a stable power supply. Engineers supervise the installation of the system and monitor its performance.

The following list of occupational tasks is specific to this career.

* Analyze information to determine software and hardware needs.
* Confer with clients and project managers to obtain information about projects.
* Determine whether software and hardware can be created in time and within the budget.
* Meet with hardware and software engineers to make sure the program and the computer will work together.
* Design software system, using scientific analysis and mathematical models.
* Develop and direct software system testing procedures, programming, and documentation.
* Evaluate factors that determine hardware needs.
* Recommend purchase of equipment to control dust, temperature, and humidity in areas of system installation.
* Specify power supply requirements and configuration.
* Coordinate installation of software system.
* Monitor functioning of equipment to ensure system operates properly. Make repairs as needed.
* Train users to use new or modified computer systems and equipment.

People in this career perform the following list of tasks, but the tasks are common to many occupations.

* Use computers.
* Update and use job-related knowledge.
* Provide advice and consultation to others.
* Provide information or drawings about devices, equipment, or structures.
* Think creatively.
* Analyze data or information.
* Get information needed to do the job.
* Identify objects, actions, and events.
* Make decisions and solve problems.
* Communicate with supervisors, peers, or subordinates.
* Communicate with people from outside the organization.
* Carry out ideas, programs, systems, or products.
* Evaluate information against standards.
* Judge the value of objects, services, or people.
* Process information.
* Document and record information.
* Monitor events, materials, and surroundings.
* Estimate sizes, quantities, time, cost, or materials needed.
* Teach others.
* Inspect equipment, structures, or materials.

Drafter

* The type and quality of postsecondary drafting programs vary considerably; prospective students should be careful in selecting a program.
* Opportunities should be best for individuals with at least 2 years of postsecondary training in drafting and considerable skill and experience using computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) systems.
* Demand for particular drafting specialties varies geographically, depending on the needs of local industry.

Drafters prepare technical drawings and plans used by production and construction workers to build everything from manufactured products, such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft, to structures, such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines. Their drawings provide visual guidelines, show the technical details of the products and structures, and specify dimensions, materials, and procedures. Drafters fill in technical details, using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, codes, and calculations previously made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, they use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure. Some drafters use their knowledge of engineering and manufacturing theory and standards to draw the parts of a machine in order to determine design elements, such as the numbers and kinds of fasteners needed to assemble the machine. Drafters use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers to complete their work.

Traditionally, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing manually. Most drafters now use computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters are referred to as CADD operators. CADD systems employ computer workstations to create a drawing on a video screen. The drawings are stored electronically to facilitate revisions and create duplications easily. These systems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CADD extensively, it is only a tool: Persons who produce technical drawings with CADD still function as drafters and need the knowledge of traditional drafters, in addition to CADD skills. Despite the near-universal use of CADD systems, manual drafting and sketching still is used in certain applications.

Drafting work has many specialties, and titles may denote a particular discipline of design or drafting.

Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts.

Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. These workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber.

Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems.

Electrical drafters prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in communication centers, powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings.

Electronics drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components.

Mechanical drafters prepare detail and assembly drawings of a wide variety of machinery and mechanical devices, indicating dimensions, fastening methods, and other requirements.

Process piping or pipeline drafters prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems.

Most drafters work a standard 40-hour week; only a small number work part time. Drafters usually work in comfortable offices furnished to accommodate their tasks. They may sit at adjustable drawing boards or drafting tables when doing manual drawings, although most drafters work at computer terminals much of the time. Because they spend long periods in front of computer terminals doing detailed work, drafters may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems.

Drafters held about 216,000 jobs in 2002. Architectural and civil drafters held about half of all jobs for drafters, mechanical drafters held about a third of all jobs, and the rest of all jobs were held by electrical and electronics drafters.

Almost half of all jobs for drafters were in architectural, engineering, and related services firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a contract basis for other industries. More than a quarter of jobs were in manufacturing industries, such as machinery manufacturing, including metalworking and other general machinery; fabricated metal products manufacturing, including architectural and structural metals; computer and electronic products manufacturing, including navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments; and transportation equipment manufacturing, including aerospace products and parts manufacturing, as well as ship and boat building. Most of the rest were employed in construction, government, wholesale trade, utilities, and employment services. Only a small number were self-employed in 2002.

Electrical and Electronics Engineer

From the global positioning system that can continuously provide the location of a vehicle to giant electric power generators, electrical and electronics engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies. Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Some of this equipment includes broadcast and communications systems; electric motors, machinery controls, lighting, and wiring in buildings, automobiles, aircraft, and radar and navigation systems; and power generating, controlling, and transmission devices used by electric utilities. Many electrical and electronics engineers also work in areas closely related to computers. However, engineers whose work is related exclusively to computer hardware are considered computer hardware engineers, another engineering specialty covered elsewhere in the Handbook.

Electrical and electronics engineers specialize in different areas such as power generation, transmission, and distribution; communications; and electrical equipment manufacturing, or a specialty within one of these areas—industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects.

Employment

Electrical and electronics engineers held about 292,000 jobs in 2002, making up the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in professional, scientific, and technical services firms, government agencies, and manufacturers of computer and electronic products and machinery. Wholesale trade, communications, and utilities firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs.

Engineer

* Overall, job opportunities in engineering are expected to be good, but will vary by specialty.
* A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level jobs.
* Starting salaries are significantly higher than those of college graduates in other fields.
* Continuing education is critical to keep abreast of the latest technology.

Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to research and develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial applications. Engineers design products, machinery to build those products, plants in which those products are made, and the systems that ensure the quality of the products and the efficiency of the workforce and manufacturing process. Engineers design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and transit systems. They develop and implement improved ways to extract, process, and use raw materials, such as petroleum and natural gas. They develop new materials that both improve the performance of products and take advantage of advances in technology. They harness the power of the sun, the Earth, atoms, and electricity for use in supplying the Nation’s power needs, and create millions of products using power. They analyze the impact of the products they develop or the systems they design on the environment and on people using them. Engineering knowledge is applied to improving many things, including the quality of healthcare, the safety of food products, and the operation of financial systems.

Engineers consider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers determine precisely what function the robot needs to perform; design and test the robot’s components; fit the components together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to many different products, such as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys.

In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. These engineers supervise production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some move into engineering management or into sales. In sales, an engineering background enables them to discuss technical aspects and assist in product planning, installation, and use.

Most engineers specialize. More than 25 major specialties are recognized by professional societies, and the major branches have numerous subdivisions. Some examples include structural and transportation engineering, which are subdivisions of civil engineering; and ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering, which are subdivisions of materials engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.

This statement, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate statements on 14 branches of engineering: Aerospace; agricultural; biomedical; chemical; civil; computer hardware; electrical and electronics, except computer; environmental; industrial, including health and safety; materials; mechanical; mining and geological, including mining safety; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Some branches of engineering not covered in detail in the Handbook, but for which there are established college programs, include architectural engineering—the design of a building’s internal support structure; and marine engineering—the design and installation of ship machinery and propulsion systems.

Engineers in each branch have a base of knowledge and training that can be applied in many fields. Electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, communications, and missile guidance fields. Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific, engineering, and business occupations.

Engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs; to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates; and to generate specifications for parts. Using the Internet or related communications systems, engineers can collaborate on designs with other engineers around the country or even abroad. Many engineers also use computers to monitor product quality and control process efficiency. They spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engineers, as complex projects often require an interdisciplinary team of engineers. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects.

Most engineers work in office buildings, laboratories, or industrial plants. Others may spend time outdoors at construction sites and oil and gas exploration and production sites, where they monitor or direct operations or solve onsite problems. Some engineers travel extensively to plants or worksites.

Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, deadlines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job, sometimes requiring engineers to work longer hours.

In 2002 engineers held 1.5 million jobs.

Engineering and Natural Sciences Managers

* Most engineering and natural sciences managers have previous experience as engineers, scientists, or mathematicians.
* Projected employment growth for engineering and natural sciences managers should be closely related to those for the engineers and scientists they supervise and the industries in which they are found.
* Opportunities will be best for workers with advanced technical knowledge and strong communication and business management skills.

Engineering and natural sciences managers plan, coordinate, and direct research, design, and production activities. They may supervise engineers, scientists, and technicians, along with support personnel. These managers use advanced technical knowledge of engineering and science to oversee a variety of activities. They determine scientific and technical goals within broad outlines provided by top executives, who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. These goals may include improving manufacturing processes, advancing scientific research, or developing new products. Managers make detailed plans to accomplish these goals—for example, they may develop the overall concepts of a new product or identify technical problems preventing the completion of a project.

To perform effectively, they also must possess knowledge of administrative procedures, such as budgeting, hiring, and supervision. These managers propose budgets for projects and programs and determine staff, training, and equipment needs. They hire and assign scientists, engineers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts of each project. They also supervise the work of these employees, review their output, and establish administrative procedures and policies—including environmental standards, for example.

In addition, these managers use communication skills extensively. They spend a great deal of time coordinating the activities of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, production, marketing, and other managers; and with contractors and equipment and materials suppliers.

Engineering managers supervise people who design and develop machinery, products, systems, and processes; or direct and coordinate production, operations, quality assurance, testing, or maintenance in industrial plants. Many are plant engineers, who direct and coordinate the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Others manage research and development teams that produce new products and processes or improve existing ones.

Natural sciences managers oversee the work of life and physical scientists, including agricultural scientists, chemists, biologists, geologists, medical scientists, and physicists. These managers direct research and development projects and coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production. They may work on basic research projects or on commercial activities. Science managers sometimes conduct their own research in addition to managing the work of others.

Engineering and natural sciences managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, also may work in laboratories, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as research scientists, or in industrial plants, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as production workers. Most managers work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pressure to meet technical or scientific goals on a short deadline or within a tight budget.

Employment

Engineering and natural sciences managers held about 257,000 jobs in 2002. About 26 percent worked in professional, scientific, and technical services industries, primarily for firms providing architectural, engineering, and related services; computer systems design and related services; and scientific research and development services. Manufacturing industries employed 35 percent of engineering and natural sciences managers. Manufacturing industries with the largest employment include those producing computer and electronic equipment, machinery, transportation equipment, including aerospace products and parts, and chemicals, including pharmaceuticals. Other large employers include government agencies and telecommunications and utilities companies.

Production or Plant Engineer

Production or plant engineers plan, direct and coordinate manufacturing activities in industrial plants, including the design, construction, modification, performance and maintenance of equipment and machinery.

Production or plant engineers may perform the following tasks:

* work out standards and policies for installation, modification, quality control, testing, inspection and maintenance, according to engineering principles and safety regulations
* inspect plant and machinery to make sure optimum performance occurs
* direct the maintenance of plant buildings and equipment and coordinate the requirements for new designs, surveys and maintenance schedules
* prepare contracts and specifications for construction and the acquisition of facilities
* schedule and plan production activities
* test newly installed machines and equipment to make sure there is compliance with requirements and specifications.