Science & Engineering Career Profiles

Materials Engineer

Materials engineers are involved in the extraction, development, processing, and testing of the materials used to create a diversity of products, from computer chips and television screens to golf clubs and snow skis. They work with metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and combinations of materials called composites to create new materials that meet certain mechanical, electrical, and chemical requirements. They also are involved in selecting materials for new applications.

There are numerous new developments within materials engineering that make it possible to manipulate and use materials in various ways. For example, materials engineers have developed the ability to create and then study materials at an atomic level using advanced processes to replicate the characteristics of materials and their components with computers.

Most metallurgical engineers work in 1 of the 3 main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemical, physical, and process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to produce suitable inputs for a number of industrial processes. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys to find the best methods of processing basic materials into final products. Process metallurgists develop and improve metalworking processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing. Most materials engineers specialize in a particular material. For example, metallurgical engineers specialize in metals, while ceramic engineers develop ceramic materials and the processes for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials that generally require high temperatures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, automobile and aircraft engine components, fiberoptic communication lines, tile, and electric insulators.

Employment

Materials engineers held about 24,000 jobs in 2002. Because materials are building blocks for other goods, materials engineers are widely distributed among manufacturing industries. In fact, 68 percent of materials engineers worked in manufacturing industries, primarily computer and electronic products, transportation equipment, fabricated metal products, primary metal production, and machinery manufacturing. They also worked in services industries such as professional, scientific, and technical services. Most remaining materials engineers worked for Federal and State governments.

Mining and Geological Engineer, Including Mining Safety Engineer

Mining and geological engineers find, extract, and prepare coal, metals, and minerals for use by manufacturing industries and utilities. They design open pit and underground mines, often using computers; supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations; and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution.

Mining safety engineers use their knowledge of mine design and practices to ensure the safety of workers and to comply with State and Federal safety regulations. They inspect walls and roof surfaces, test air samples, and examine mining equipment for compliance with safety practices.

Employment

Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, held about 5,200 jobs in 2002. While about 4 out of 10 mining engineers worked in the mining industry, over one-third worked in professional, scientific, and technical services firms, mostly providing consulting and other services to the mining industry. Most of the rest worked in State or Federal government.

Mining engineers often are employed at the location of natural deposits, often near small communities, and sometimes outside the United States. Those in research and development, management, consulting, or sales, however, often are located in metropolitan areas.

Naval Engineers

Naval engineering is a rewarding career that offers challenge, excitement and satisfaction. It is an opportunity to enjoy your proficiency in mathematics and science in a career both steeped in tradition and at the cutting edge of technology. You can be a recognized professional serving one of America's most honored and historic industries, in a technical field where you can see and take pride in the product of your effort. As a naval engineer, you can design, build, operate or maintain ships as diverse as Navy aircraft carriers and submarines, Coast Guard cutters, or commercial passenger and cargo vessels. A choice to become a naval engineer will lead you to a broad variety of engineering and physical science skills. Naval engineering combines the two interrelated fields of naval architecture and marine engineering, and includes other engineering disciplines such as mechanical, civil, electrical, and ocean engineering, as they relate to the needs of the maritime industry.

Naval architects must have a general understanding of all engineering disciplines because they generally start the process of designing a ship. After they determine its basic size and shape, they address hull form and resistance, propulsion power requirements, ship structure, weight distribution, stability, and the efficient location of the many compartments throughout the ship.

Marine engineers are responsible for designing mechanical systems for propulsion and auxiliary services, and selecting the associated equipment such as steam boilers and turbines, diesel and gas turbine internal combustion engines, gears, propellers, as well as their controls. Many marine engineers have served as officers aboard ship operating the power plant and generating vital services such as electricity and fresh water.

Mechanical engineers design specific items of machinery like cranes, hoists, elevators, and equipment for anchoring, steering, controlling submarine depth, or moving weapons and other supplies within the ship as well as between ships at sea. A knowledge of fluid systems is required for designing fuel, lubrication and water installations, as well as firefighting, compressed air, and heating, ventilating, and air conditioning.

Civil engineers specify the actual structure of the ship including framing, shell, decks, bulkheads and equipment foundations. They ensure that the ship can withstand the weight of cargo loading and the impact of waves. Combat ships must be able to withstand battle damage from weapons such as missiles, torpedoes and underwater mines.

Electrical engineers provide for the generation and distribution of electricity throughout the ship for lighting, power, system controls and various other ship's services. Today's ships also require a multitude of electronic navigation, communication, and combat systems.

Ocean engineers concern themselves with work both on and below the surface of the sea and study ocean movements and their effect on ships and craft both on the surface and submerged. An ocean engineer may design small sub-surface vehicles and devices intended for deep submergence that perform ocean bottom scanning, salvage operations, object recovery and submarine rescue. The work includes structural, propulsion, and hull form design for resisting deep ocean pressure, and selection of materials for this hostile environment.

Nuclear Engineer

Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used to derive benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear plants used to generate power. They may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by the generation of nuclear energy—or on the production of fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear power sources for spacecraft; others find industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials, such as equipment to diagnose and treat medical problems.

Employment

Nuclear engineers held about 16,000 jobs in 2002. Almost half were employed in utilities, one-quarter in professional, scientific, and technical services firms, and 14 percent in the Federal Government. Many Federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the U.S. Navy, and most of the rest worked for the U.S. Department of Energy.

Petroleum Engineer

Petroleum engineers search the world for reservoirs containing oil or natural gas. Once these resources are discovered, petroleum engineers work with geologists and other specialists to understand the geologic formation and properties of the rock containing the reservoir, determine the drilling methods to be used, and monitor drilling and production operations. They design equipment and processes to achieve the maximum profitable recovery of oil and gas. Petroleum engineers rely heavily on computer models to simulate reservoir performance using different recovery techniques. They also use computer models for simulations of the effects of various drilling options.

Because only a small proportion of oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting water, chemicals, gases, or steam into an oil reservoir to force out more of the oil, and computer-controlled drilling or fracturing to connect a larger area of a reservoir to a single well. Because even the best techniques in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, petroleum engineers research and develop technology and methods to increase recovery and lower the cost of drilling and production operations.

Employment

Petroleum engineers held about 14,000 jobs in 2002, mostly in oil and gas extraction, professional, scientific and technical services, and petroleum refining. Employers include major oil companies and hundreds of smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and service companies.

Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Alaska, and California, including offshore sites. Many American petroleum engineers also work overseas in oil-producing countries.

Physicists and Astronomers

* Scientific research and development services firms and the Federal Government employ 3 out of 5 physicists and astronomers.
* Most jobs are in basic research and development, usually requiring a doctoral degree; master’s degree holders qualify for many jobs in applied research and development, while bachelor’s degree holders may qualify as technicians or research assistants.
* Ph.D. graduates will face competition for basic research jobs.

Nature of the Work

Physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the structure and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe; others apply their physics knowledge to practical areas, such as the development of advanced materials, electronic and optical devices, and medical equipment.

Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, particle accelerators, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Based on observations and analysis, they attempt to discover and explain laws describing the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions. Physicists also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instrumentation.

Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. Astronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They also apply their knowledge to solve problems in navigation, space flight, and satellite communications, and to develop the instrumentation and techniques used to observe and collect astronomical data.

Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discoveries made through basic research and work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For example, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and, then, integrated circuits used in computers.

Physicists also design research equipment. This equipment often has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers are used in surgery, microwave devices are used in ovens, and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number of physicists work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry.

Much physics research is done in small or medium-sized laboratories. However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, and high energy and in some other areas of physics require extremely large, expensive equipment, such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research.

Almost all astronomers do research. Some are theoreticians, working on the laws governing the structure and evolution of astronomical objects. Others analyze large quantities of data gathered by observatories and satellites, and write scientific papers or reports on their findings. Some astronomers actually operate large space- or ground-based telescopes, usually as part of a team. However, astronomers may spend only a few weeks each year making observations with optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. For many years, satellites and other space-based instruments, such as the Hubble space telescope, have provided tremendous amounts of astronomical data. New technology resulting in improvements in analytical techniques and instruments, such as computers and optical telescopes and mounts, is leading to a resurgence in ground-based research. A small number of astronomers work in museums housing planetariums. These astronomers develop and revise programs presented to the public, and may direct planetarium operations.

Physicists generally specialize in one of many subfields—elementary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and molecular physics, physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics), optics, acoustics, space physics, plasma physics, or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields. For example, within condensed matter physics, specialties include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, all physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Also, growing numbers of physicists work in interdisciplinary fields, such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics.

Employment

Physicists and astronomers held about 14,000 jobs in 2002. Jobs for astronomers accounted for only 7 percent of the total. Nearly one-third of physicists and astronomers worked for scientific research and development services firms. The Federal Government employed 29 percent, mostly in the U.S. Department of Defense, but also in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and in the U.S. Departments of Commerce, Health and Human Services, and Energy. Other physicists and astronomers worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty, usually research, positions, or for State governments, information technology companies, pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing companies, or electronic equipment manufacturers.

Besides the jobs described above, many physicists and astronomers held faculty positions in colleges and universities.

Science Technician

* cience technicians in production jobs can be employed on day, evening, or night shifts.
* Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate degree.
* Job opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of applied science technology programs.
* Job growth will be concentrated in pharmaceutical manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, and biotechnological research and development firms.

Nature of the Work [About this section] Back to Top Back to Top

Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to help invent and improve products and processes. However, their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Technicians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instruments, monitor experiments, make observations, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. They must keep detailed logs of all of their work-related activities. Those who work in production monitor manufacturing processes and may be involved in ensuring quality by testing products for proper proportions of ingredients, for purity, or for strength and durability.

As laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex in recent years, the role of science technicians in research and development has expanded. In addition to performing routine tasks, many technicians also develop and adapt laboratory procedures to achieve the best results, interpret data, and devise solutions to problems, under the direction of scientists. Moreover, technicians must master the laboratory equipment so that they can adjust settings when necessary and recognize when equipment is malfunctioning.

The increasing use of robotics to perform many routine tasks has freed technicians to operate more sophisticated laboratory equipment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, computer-interfaced equipment, robotics, and high-technology industrial applications, such as biological engineering.

Most science technicians specialize, learning skills and working in the same disciplines in which scientists work. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to follow the same structure as those for scientists. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food, fiber, and animal research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Food science technicians assist food scientists and technologists in research and development, production technology, and quality control. For example, food science technicians may conduct tests on food additives and preservatives to ensure FDA compliance on factors such as color, texture, and nutrients. They analyze, record, and compile test results; order supplies to maintain laboratory inventory; and clean and sterilize laboratory equipment.

Biological technicians work with biologists studying living organisms. Many assist scientists who conduct medical research—helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example. Those who work in pharmaceutical companies help develop and manufacture medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations. Those working in the field of microbiology generally work as lab assistants, studying living organisms and infectious agents. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances, such as blood, food, and drugs, and some examine evidence in a forensic science laboratory. Biological technicians working in biotechnology labs use the knowledge and techniques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply them in product development.

Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Generally, there are two types of chemical technicians—research and development technicians who work in experimental laboratories, and process control technicians who work in manufacturing or other industrial plants. Many research and development chemical technicians conduct a variety of laboratory procedures, from routine process control to complex research projects. For example, they may collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels or produce compounds through complex organic synthesis. Most process technicians work in manufacturing, where they test packaging for design, integrity of materials, and environmental acceptability. Often, process technicians who work in plants also focus on quality assurance: there, they monitor product quality or production processes and develop new production techniques. A few work in shipping to provide technical support and expertise for these functions.

Environmental science and protection technicians perform laboratory and field tests to monitor environmental resources and determine the contaminants and sources of pollution. They may collect samples for testing or be involved in abating, controlling, or remediating sources of environmental pollutants. Some are responsible for waste management operations, control and management of hazardous materials inventory, or general activities involving regulatory compliance.

Forensic science technicians investigate crimes by collecting and analyzing physical evidence. Often, they specialize in areas such as DNA analysis or firearm examination, performing tests on weapons or substances such as fiber, hair, tissue, or body fluids to determine significance to the investigation. They also prepare reports to document their findings and the laboratory techniques used, and may provide information and expert opinion to investigators. When criminal cases come to trial, forensic science technicians often provide testimony, as expert witnesses, on specific laboratory findings by identifying and classifying substances, materials, and other evidence collected at the crime scene.

Forest and conservation technicians compile data on the size, content, and condition of forest land tracts. These workers usually work in a forest under the supervision of a forester, conducting specific tasks such as measuring timber, supervising harvesting operations, assisting in roadbuilding operations, and locating property lines and features. They also may gather basic information, such as species and population of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may cause fire danger. Forest and conservation technicians also train and lead forest and conservation workers in seasonal activities, such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities.

Geological and petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells, using advanced instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, these technicians collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to determine petroleum and mineral and element composition using scanning electron microscopes. Some petroleum technicians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drilling operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts.

Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in research. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity.

Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers.

Science technicians held about 208,000 jobs in 2002.


Statistics

The world is becoming more and more quantitative and data focused. Many professions depend on numerical measurements to make decisions in the face of uncertainty. Statisticians use quantitative abilities, statistical knowledge, and communication skills to work on many challenging problems, such as:

* Estimating the safety and studying the economics of nuclear power plants and alternative energy sources (at a utility company, research laboratory, the Nuclear Regulatory commission, or the Department of Energy)
* Evaluating the environmental impact of air, water, and soil pollutants (at a research laboratory, commercial environmental clean-up firm, or the Environmental Protection Agency)
* Designing and analyzing studies to determine if new drugs and medical devices are safe and effective (at a pharmaceutical company, medical research center, or the Food and Drug Administration)
* Estimating the unemployment rate in the United States (at the Bureau of Labor Statistics)
* Analyzing consumer demand for products and services (at a consumer marketing firm, corporation, or consulting firm)
* Designing studies for and analyzing data from agricultural experiments to increase productivity and yield (at an agricultural college or agribusiness corporation)
* Helping scientists and future scientists collect and analyze data to create information and develop new statistical methodology (at a university statistics, mathematics, biostatistics, business, ecology, or psychology department)

Job Characteristics

* Use data to solve problems in a wide variety of fields
* Apply mathematical and statistical knowledge to social, economic, medical, political, and ecological problems
* Work individually and/or as part of an interdisciplinary team
* Travel to consult with other professionals or to attend conferences, seminars, and continuing education activities
* Advance the frontiers of statistics, mathematics, and probability through education and research

Surveyors, Cartographers, and Photogrammetrists and Surveying Technicians

* Almost 2 out of 3 jobs were in architectural, engineering, and related services.
* Opportunities will be best for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have at least a bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills.
* Computer skills enhance employment opportunities.

Several different types of workers are responsible for measuring and mapping the earth’s surface. Traditional land surveyors establish official land, air space, and water boundaries. They write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents; define airspace for airports; and measure construction and mineral sites. Other surveyors provide data relevant to the shape, contour, location, elevation, or dimension of land or land features. Cartographers compile geographic, political, and cultural information and prepare maps of large areas. Photogrammetrists measure and analyze aerial photographs that are subsequently used to prepare detailed maps and drawings. Surveying technicians assist land surveyors by operating survey instruments and collecting information in the field and by performing computations and computer-aided drafting in offices. Mapping technicians calculate mapmaking information from field notes. They also draw topographical maps and verify their accuracy.

Land surveyors manage survey parties who measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on, above, and below the earth’s surface. They plan the fieldwork, select known survey reference points, and determine the precise location of important features in the survey area. Surveyors research legal records, look for evidence of previous boundaries, and analyze the data to determine the location of boundary lines. They also record the results of surveys, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plots, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work. Known as professional land surveyors, they are sometimes called to provide expert testimony in court cases concerning matters pertaining to surveying.

A survey party gathers the information needed by the land surveyor. A typical survey party consists of a party chief and one or more surveying technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a land surveyor or a senior surveying technician, leads day-to-day work activities. Surveying technicians assist the party chief by adjusting and operating surveying instruments, such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic distance-measuring equipment. Surveying technicians or assistants position and hold the vertical rods, or targets, that the theodolite operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or elevations. In addition, they may hold measuring tapes, if electronic distance-measuring equipment is not used. Surveying technicians compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from surveying instruments into computers. Survey parties also may include laborers or helpers who perform less skilled duties, such as clearing brush from sight lines, driving stakes, or carrying equipment.

New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and surveying technicians. On larger projects, surveyors are increasingly using the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite system that locates points on the earth to a high degree of precision by using radio signals transmitted via satellites. To use this system, a surveyor places a satellite signal receiver—a small instrument mounted on a tripod—on a desired point. The receiver simultaneously collects information from several satellites to establish a precise position. The receiver also can be placed in a vehicle for tracing out road systems. Because receivers now come in different sizes and shapes, and because the cost of receivers has fallen, much more surveying work can be done with GPS. Surveyors then must interpret and check the results produced by the new technology.

Cartographers measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface. Their work involves everything from performing geographical research and compiling data to actually producing maps. Cartographers collect, analyze, and interpret both spatial data—such as latitude, longitude, elevation, and distance—and nonspatial data—for example, population density, land-use patterns, annual precipitation levels, and demographic characteristics. They prepare maps in either digital or graphic form, using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare detailed maps and drawings from aerial photographs, usually of areas that are inaccessible, difficult, or less cost efficient to survey by other methods. Map editors develop and verify the contents of maps, using aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some States require photogrammetrists to be licensed as professional land surveyors.

Some surveyors perform specialized functions closer to those of cartographers than to those of traditional surveyors. For example, geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satellite observations (remote sensing), to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually in relation to petroleum. Marine or hydrographic surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, the topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features.

The work of surveyors and cartographers is changing because of advancements in technology, including not only the GPS, but also new earth resources data satellites, improved aerial photography, and geographic information systems (GIS)—computerized data banks of spatial data, along with the hardware, software, and staff needed to use them. These systems are capable of assembling, integrating, analyzing, and displaying data identified according to location. A GIS typically is used to handle maps which combine information that is useful for environmental studies, geology, engineering, planning, business marketing, and other disciplines. As more of these systems are developed, a new type of mapping scientist is emerging from the older specialties of photogrammetrist and cartographer: the geographic information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and surveying into a broader field concerned with the collection and analysis of geographic data.

Employment

Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians held about 124,000 jobs in 2002. Architectural, engineering, and related services firms—including firms that provided surveying and mapping services to other industries on a contract basis—provided about two-thirds of jobs for these workers. Federal, State, and local governmental agencies provided almost 1 in 6 jobs. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service (USFS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Construction firms, mining and oil and gas extraction companies, and utilities also employ surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Only a small number were self-employed in 2002.